What Is Stockholm Syndrome?

In psychology, the term “Stockholm Syndrome” is widely used to describe a defensive, unconscious, and traumatic bond that forms between aggressors—such as captors, abusers, or oppressors—and their victims. The paradox of this syndrome is that victims begin to develop positive feelings toward those who terrorize, oppress, or dominate them. One of the main reasons for its development is psychological trauma experienced during acts of aggression: victims, overwhelmed by intense emotions, start to sympathize with their abusers and justify their actions. This phenomenon can also occur in cases of mass crimes.

The Origin of the Term

A prominent historical example illustrating the essence of “Stockholm Syndrome” is the case of Patricia Hearst. After the Hibernia Bank robbery in San Francisco, she was referred to as a “hostage-terrorist.” Patricia was kidnapped in February 1974 by the Symbionese Liberation Army in Berkeley, California. Her family paid a $4 million ransom, but she never returned home.

The History of Stockholm Syndrome

Patricia endured physical, psychological, and sexual abuse, yet after her parents partially fulfilled the terrorists’ demands, she announced her allegiance to the Symbionese Liberation Army. Some believed she simply fell in love with her captors, seeing them as new friends, while others thought she lost her mind under the threat of death. As a victim subjected to humiliation and violence, she became a vivid example of Stockholm Syndrome, although the term itself appeared later.

Another notable case that led to the introduction of the term “Stockholm Syndrome” occurred in August 1973 in Stockholm, Sweden. Jan-Erik Olsson single-handedly took over the Kreditbanken and held four employees hostage. At the captor’s request, his former cellmate Clark Olofsson was released from prison and brought to the bank. Under pressure from the aggressors—or perhaps out of sympathy—the hostages called the country’s prime minister and demanded that the criminals’ conditions be met. Although the standoff ended unfavorably for the attackers, the former hostages later went to great lengths to defend them, even stating they feared the police more than Olsson and Olofsson. They later hired lawyers for the captors at their own expense.

Psychiatrist Nils Bejerot, who advised the police during these events and was often criticized by the hostages, coined the term “Stockholm Syndrome” (originally “Norrmalmstorg Syndrome”) to explain their behavior.

Stockholm Syndrome in Psychology

Stockholm Syndrome is often used in psychology to describe an unconscious defensive reaction—a traumatic bond or sympathy that a victim develops toward an aggressor. This bond forms under abnormal circumstances such as aggression, captivity, kidnapping, or even abuse. The sympathy is typically one-sided, coming only from the victim, and is often seen as a form of psychological defense. In some cases, victims not only develop warm feelings toward their aggressors but also adopt their values and beliefs.

Other common interpretations of the term include:

• Hostage identification syndrome
• Common sense syndrome
• Stockholm factor
• Survival syndrome, and others

Everyday Stockholm Syndrome

Everyday Stockholm Syndrome refers to situations similar to domestic abuse, but the term is also used to describe relationships between, for example, bosses and employees or among students. The core of this variant remains the same: aggression from one party (male or female) toward a partner, child, or even a teenager, resulting in toxic, abusive relationships. The victim, feeling guilty, starts to sympathize with and defend the aggressor, often developing a strong emotional attachment.

This form is often chronic: the victim may occasionally want to change the situation but then reverts to sympathizing with the abuser. Here are two examples for clarity:

• School Bullying: The victim is bullied and harassed by an aggressor. When the situation comes to the attention of parents, teachers, or administrators, the victim may start defending the aggressor, recalling only positive moments (“he gave me candy after insulting me,” “he carried my backpack before kicking it”). This unconscious defense mechanism is a hallmark of Stockholm Syndrome. Sometimes, victims even admire their aggressors.
• Workplace Abuse: A boss insults and belittles an employee under threat of firing, psychologically pressures them, and forces them to do tasks outside their job description. Occasionally, the boss may offer small rewards. If the employee focuses only on the positive moments and rationalizes the negative ones, a painful attachment develops, resulting in Stockholm Syndrome.

How to Recognize Stockholm Syndrome

Aside from being a survival strategy, Stockholm Syndrome can be identified by several key signs:

• Sincere admiration for the abuser or aggressor
• Resistance to efforts aimed at protection, rescue, or changing the problematic situation
• Justifying and defending the aggressor
• Trying to create conditions that help the aggressor achieve their goals
• Refusing to testify against the abuser
• Unwillingness to fight the problem, even when there is a real opportunity to do so

It’s important to note that the syndrome often develops due to extreme stress, heightened fear, and anxiety.

Famous Examples of Stockholm Syndrome

Here are five well-known cases involving Stockholm Syndrome:

1. Patricia Hearst: As discussed above, she was kidnapped and, under threat of death or due to sympathy, joined her captors, refusing to return home even after a ransom was paid.
2. Natascha Kampusch: Kidnapped by Wolfgang Priklopil, she spent eight years in captivity (1998–2006). Notably, Natascha made almost no attempts to escape, even when given the chance. She and her captor would have breakfast together, and he provided her with books, but also abused her. Paradoxically, he even told her how to escape, but she hesitated. Neighbors later reported seeing her doing chores or walking in the garden while her captor was away.
3. Elizabeth Smart: Abducted in Utah in 2002 by Brian David Mitchell and his wife, Elizabeth was held captive for nine months. Despite being abused, she appeared in public with her captors and made little effort to escape. She was rescued in 2003 after being recognized by officers with the help of bystanders.
4. Jaycee Lee Dugard: Kidnapped in 1991 at age 11 and found only in 2009. While in captivity, Jaycee gave birth to two children. Her captors, Phillip and Nancy Garrido, were found guilty. Jaycee often interacted with neighbors, claiming to live in the house and referring to herself as the couple’s daughter. She welcomed guests and let her daughters play outside.
5. Lima Hostage Crisis: In 1996, the Japanese ambassador’s residence in Lima, Peru, was seized, resulting in the capture of 500 high-profile hostages. The terrorists, disguised as waiters, planned to exchange the hostages for imprisoned comrades. The paradox of this case is that both Stockholm Syndrome (victims sympathizing with captors) and Lima Syndrome (captors developing feelings for victims) were observed. The terrorists released hostages without harm, and the victims later defended their captors’ actions.

Stockholm Syndrome in Romantic Relationships

Stockholm Syndrome can also manifest in relationships between men and women, similar to its everyday form. Typical signs include:

• Physical or psychological abuse: The aggressor may not kidnap or terrorize the partner but tries to isolate them, threatening revenge if they leave. The victim, feeling suppressed and afraid, does not end the relationship due to developing sympathy and a desire to justify the abuser’s behavior.
• Dominance: The dominant partner convinces the victim that they cannot have a better life without them. Over time, the victim internalizes this belief and sees the relationship as their only chance for happiness.
• Desire to please the abuser: Paradoxically, the abused partner, regardless of gender, tries to please the abuser in every way. Sometimes, this leads to Lima Syndrome, where the abuser starts creating comfortable conditions for the victim.

In any case, such a relationship is unhealthy.

How to Break Free from Such Relationships

Overcoming a traumatic situation where one partner develops Stockholm Syndrome requires the support of loved ones, friends, and psychologists. For the victim to break free from these patterns and roles, they need:

• Support
• Help from family and friends
• Love
• Professional psychological assistance

Treatment

Therapy usually becomes relevant only after the immediate threat has passed (e.g., after a hostage situation, abusive relationship, or aggressive behavior from a partner or parent), meaning the person is now safe. Treatment typically involves a psychotherapist helping the victim recognize their innocence. Common therapeutic approaches include:

• Cognitive therapy: Effective for mild cases, using persuasion to help the victim reframe their beliefs.
• Behavioral therapy: Techniques to change the victim’s perception of the aggressor, combined with new behavioral patterns to help them stop identifying as a victim.
• Psychodrama: A method aimed at restoring the victim’s critical perspective by role-playing specific situations and discussing them afterward.

How to Help Someone with Stockholm Syndrome

Helping someone escape an abusive relationship or similar situation is only possible when they are safe. Giving advice is rarely effective; insistence usually leads nowhere, as shown by the historical examples above. It is far more important to listen without judgment. The best way to help is to encourage the person to seek professional psychological help. In severe cases, psychiatric intervention may be necessary, but medication is rarely used for Stockholm Syndrome.

Conclusion

Although Stockholm Syndrome is not officially recognized as a serious mental disorder, it is important to address it due to its dangers. People affected by it often act against their own interests and will, believing they are doing so voluntarily under the influence of deep psychological mechanisms. If you or someone you know shows signs of Stockholm Syndrome, it is recommended to seek help from a psychologist if possible. Take care of yourself.