History of Profiling

Criminal Profiling Origins

Criminal profiling is the practice of determining a person’s identity based on the nature and method of a committed crime. As an investigative tool, criminal profiling involves the comprehensive use of psychological profiling techniques to optimize investigative and procedural actions. This interdisciplinary field emerged at the intersection of psychology, sociology, forensics, criminology, and medicine, combining the efforts of specialists to identify the personal characteristics of criminals and their victims, the relationships between them, their motivations, and their actions during crimes.

Initially, the term “profiling” referred to creating a psychological profile of an unknown person based on evidence left at a crime scene. However, the roots of profiling can be traced back to the Middle Ages, particularly during the Inquisition. According to American scholars, the first written source of profiling is the “Malleus Maleficarum” (“Hammer of Witches”), which described the psychological and other characteristics of witches and methods for identifying and testing them.

19th Century

One of the earliest attempts at creating a psychological profile in law enforcement is attributed to British surgeon Thomas Bond, who in 1888 profiled Jack the Ripper after examining the bodies of two victims. Bond concluded that the perpetrator was a middle-aged man, physically strong, cold-blooded, working alone, and likely wore a cloak or large jacket to hide blood stains. He also suggested the killer suffered from periodic episodes of erotic mania and likely lived off social benefits. The accuracy of Bond’s profile remains unknown, as the killer was never caught.

Cesare Lombroso made significant contributions to the development of criminal profiling, identifying 18 criteria for criminal behavior. German criminologist Dr. Erich Wulffen, in his work “Woman as a Sexual Murderer,” described the social, behavioral, and biological foundations of female murderers and developed corresponding profiles. Hans Gross, the founder of criminology, also emphasized the importance of revealing a criminal’s personality through their crimes, noting that each thief has a unique “style” that rarely changes.

20th Century

Although the idea of reconstructing a person’s psychological and physical traits from crime scene evidence dates back centuries, the first use of psychological profiling as a forensic tool occurred in the 1950s. In 1953, American scientist Dr. Paul L. Kirk published “Crime Investigation,” noting that forensic profiling is a natural result of evaluating physical evidence, which can significantly aid in identifying suspects even before a specific individual is suspected.

One notable case was the “Mad Bomber” in New York during the 1950s and 1960s, where over 30 bombings occurred in public places. Psychiatrist Dr. James Brussel analyzed crime scene photos and letters sent by the bomber, concluding the perpetrator was a middle-aged, unmarried, foreign-born Catholic man living in Connecticut. His profile led to the arrest of George Metesky, whose characteristics closely matched Brussel’s predictions. Brussel also successfully profiled the “Boston Strangler,” helping authorities identify Albert DeSalvo as the perpetrator of thirteen murders.

In the early 1970s, FBI agent Howard Teten began using Brussel’s profiling methods in criminal psychology courses at the FBI Academy. By 1984, the National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime was established, officially recognizing psychological profiling as a method. The center’s main tasks included identifying and tracking serial killers and violent offenders, supported by a national computer system for managing case data. The FBI’s Behavioral Science Unit in Quantico, Virginia, became a leader in developing and applying profiling techniques, with John Douglas heading the unit in 1990. By 1995, nearly 40 specialists were working on psychological profiling in the U.S., with an 80% accuracy rate in their conclusions.

Today, psychological profiling is widely used in preliminary investigations across Europe and America, with many professionals training at the FBI Academy. For example, in Germany, specialized police units are trained in criminal profiling, known as Operational Crime Analysis (OFA), at both the federal and state levels.

Profiling in Russia

In Russia, the in-depth study of serial murders for investigative purposes began with the “Vitebsk Case” in the 1970s, when investigator N. Ignatovich proved that seemingly unrelated murders were committed by the same person. The method of psychological profiling is not entirely new to Russia, as it aligns with the theoretical foundations of hypothesis development and modeling. In 1992, the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) established a department for psychophysiological crime analysis, focusing on creating psychological profiles for unsolved serial murders. Automated information systems were developed to analyze serial killings and assist in profiling unknown offenders. Interviews with investigators in St. Petersburg revealed that psychological profiles were already being used in the 1980s to identify and apprehend serial sexual-sadistic killers.

Main Directions of Profiling in Forensics

This article highlights several key areas where profiling techniques are applied in crime investigation:

• Creating a psychological-criminalistic portrait of the offender: According to A.I. Anfinogenov, a psychological portrait is a method and result of understanding a criminal event, aimed at identifying individual characteristics of the perpetrator as revealed by the circumstances and evidence of the crime. Such portraits are valuable tools for investigators and can be used to search for unknown offenders, plan investigative actions, and even monitor released convicts.
• Geographical profiling: This method determines the likely location of a suspect, especially useful in tracking serial offenders and preventing further crimes. R.E. Swope outlined several theories for choosing crime locations: opportunity theory (availability and accessibility of targets), routine activity theory (likelihood of offender and victim convergence), and cognitive mapping theory (offenders rarely commit crimes in unfamiliar areas).

Aviation Profiling

Profiling later found application in aviation security, referring to the observation and questioning of passengers during pre-flight screening to identify potentially dangerous individuals.

The training and use of specialists (profilers) to detect potentially dangerous passengers, especially those with terrorist intentions, was first developed in the late 1970s by the Israeli airline El Al in response to increased terrorist activity. By 1984, the method was formalized in English as “International Consultation on Security of Vulnerable Targets” and began to be used in aviation security abroad.

The 2004 terrorist attacks at Domodedovo Airport in Russia prompted a serious review of security procedures. Following these events, authorities recommended the selection and training of aviation security staff, as the terrorists had displayed suspicious behaviors that could have served as warning signs during screening.

Purpose of Aviation Profiling

The goal of aviation profiling is to identify, through nonverbal cues, passengers who may intend to commit terrorist acts on board an aircraft or in the airport, as well as those carrying concealed weapons or explosives, or who may commit offenses or disruptive acts due to psychological traits.

Effective profiling relies on the skills of security staff and flight crews in screening passengers, observing behavior in emergencies, and conducting effective interviews. The aim is to resolve conflicts and neutralize threats without physical force.

The core concept of profiling is building a passenger profile. The main methodological principle is that individuals planning or committing terrorist acts exhibit certain suspicious traits in appearance, behavior, travel documents, and belongings. Studying and systematizing these traits allows for the creation of passenger profiles, classifying individuals as either non-threatening or potentially dangerous. All passengers are processed according to a scheme designed to detect suspicious signs.

How Aviation Profiling Works

Profiling may begin with collecting preliminary information from various databases. Before check-in, staff review travel documents, inspect belongings, and analyze the passenger’s appearance and behavior, as well as that of their companions. Special attention is paid to detecting forged documents. The most effective place for profiling is the area before check-in counters, where passengers have all their belongings with them. Profilers may work at or near the initial screening position.

A special baggage interview system has been developed to identify dangerous or prohibited items, including those given to the passenger by others. Emphasizing that the interview is for the passenger’s safety helps establish a positive rapport. Questions are asked in a language the passenger understands and typically take 3-4 minutes. During this time, the profiler analyzes responses and behavior to assess potential risk. If no abnormalities are detected, the passenger proceeds to check-in; if deemed suspicious, they are sent for a personal search.

Suspicious behavior and appearance can be detected through psychological testing, which in this context means visually diagnosing a person’s internal state based on observable signs that may indicate intent to commit a crime. This involves professional observation according to a specific scheme.

“Clues of criminal behavior” are also important, such as general psychological instability, unnatural or exaggerated behavior with security staff, or detachment from surroundings (a symptom of a suicidal terrorist). Noting changes in behavior during interviews or when certain topics are raised is particularly telling. Psychological testing may also involve communication techniques to quickly establish contact and gather necessary information.

Profiling is already in use in Russia and some CIS countries on international flights at airports like Pulkovo and Sheremetyevo. This technology, widely used by airlines in the U.S. and Israel, is gaining traction in Russia. The profiling system is highly flexible and can be adapted to the architecture and specifics of each airport, local conditions, and threat profiles.