The Appearance of the Dark Side of the Human Psyche

For much of history, science knew little about the most dangerous personality disorders: psychopathy, narcissism, and Machiavellianism. Over the past century, however, our understanding has grown. We now know, for example, that some people with these disorders lack empathy but can imitate it, and that a predisposition to psychopathy may be innate. What does modern science know about the so-called “dark triad” of personality disorders, and why are they grouped together?

What Is the Dark Triad and How Did It Emerge?

The dark triad is a psychological model of individual differences that includes three personality traits: narcissism, psychopathy, and machiavellianism.

• Narcissism is characterized by a sense of one’s own uniqueness, a desire to be the center of attention, and a dismissive attitude toward others. Narcissists genuinely believe they are superior and that their interests should come first.
• Psychopathy involves low emotional sensitivity, poor self-control, a craving for thrills, fearlessness, and a sense of superiority. Psychopaths are, in some ways, rebels.
• Machiavellianism is marked by low empathy, a tendency to manipulate, and amorality. People high in Machiavellianism sincerely believe that the ends justify the means. Unlike narcissists and psychopaths, Machiavellians consciously manipulate others, seeing people merely as tools to achieve their goals.

Humanity first learned about narcissism, then psychopathy, and later Machiavellianism. Narcissism was initially discussed by psychoanalysts in the 19th century, who described personality traits linked to an exaggerated sense of self-importance. This feeling did not make narcissists happy; they often suffered from self-criticism and loneliness, and struggled to form and maintain relationships. Being close to someone who truly believes the world revolves around them is difficult, as narcissists ignore others’ desires, refuse to compromise, and react harshly to criticism.

By the late 20th century, the concept of non-clinical narcissism emerged. In 1979, experts created one of the first questionnaires to identify narcissistic traits within the normal range. Today, there are several such questionnaires, but no universal test exists; researchers believe narcissism is a collection of traits rather than a single “root” personality feature.

Psychopathy was identified through studies of prisoners. In the late 19th century, psychologists studying criminals wondered about the causes of antisocial behavior. They described traits common among offenders: fearlessness, low anxiety, antisocial tendencies, egocentrism, lack of empathy, impulsivity, and poor self-control. These traits formed the basis for diagnosing a specific sociopathic personality disorder.

For example, psychology professor Robert Hare, in his book Without Conscience: The Disturbing World of the Psychopaths Among Us, showed that rehabilitation programs in the U.S. do not work for those with high levels of psychopathy. Instead of truly changing, psychopaths feigned remorse and obedience, which helped them get released early—only to reoffend and return to prison more often than those without psychopathic traits.

Today, it’s known that psychopathic traits can exist within the normal population, not just among criminals. Scientists debate the existence of primary and secondary psychopathy. Primary psychopathy is likely linked to genetic factors, such as a partial or complete loss of empathy—a mechanism crucial for human evolution. There is no single “empathy gene,” but researchers suggest that primary psychopathy may be related to biological factors, such as the development of mirror neurons responsible for empathy.

Secondary psychopathy refers to personality traits that develop due to adverse life circumstances, leading to poor self-control, impulsivity, and other consequences that foster antisocial behavior. For treatment, the origin of psychopathy is less important than the severity of symptoms and their impact on life.

Machiavellianism began to be tested in the 1970s with the so-called Mach Scale, developed by Richard Christie and Florence Geis. This test measures a person’s tendency to manipulate others in interpersonal relationships and generally reflects a lack of trust in others. Modern researchers study domains within Machiavellianism, but these distinctions are not yet crucial for correcting manipulative behavior.

Until the turn of the 21st century, narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism were studied separately. Recently, however, they have been grouped as traits of the dark, negative side of personality. Since the 2000s, scientists have been investigating whether these three traits are independent or simply different manifestations of a “dark core” of human personality.

Current research suggests that these traits share a common core, but each also has unique features. The dark triad is now considered a supplement to the classic “Big Five” model of personality traits: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience. While the Big Five are socially acceptable traits, the dark triad includes personality features that lead to maladaptation.

What Do Narcissists, Psychopaths, and Machiavellians Have in Common?

All these individuals share a disregard for others and a tendency to devalue those around them, though each trait expresses this differently. For narcissists, others are unimportant because the narcissist is grand and the center of the universe. For Machiavellians, others are merely tools for achieving personal goals. For psychopaths, devaluing others stems from an inability to empathize—people are, in a sense, soulless puppets to them.

Other personality features—such as unkindness, deceitfulness, and emotional coldness—overlap in research, but it’s not yet clear which are causes and which are effects.

The combination of all dark triad traits poses a danger to society because the devaluation of others inherent in narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy contradicts principles like equality and the value of human life. However, aside from isolating those with extreme levels of these traits, there is currently no clear solution.

Narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism are also conceptually linked. Academic psychologists are working to create a universal model of personality traits. The Big Five describes positive traits, but for a long time, there was no model for negative traits. Today, the dark triad fills that role.

Where Is the Line Between Pathology and Normalcy?

Dark triad traits can exist in non-clinical forms of psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and narcissism, affecting a person’s quality of life and interactions with others.

When these traits are present within the normal range, experts do not classify them as personality disorders. Such cases still require attention, but isolation is unnecessary—the person likely does not pose a danger to others. One way to draw the line is to assess how well the person adapts to society. If they do not commit crimes or endanger others, they are within the normal range, even if they have traits of one of the types.

To assess the degree of narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy within the normal range, psychologists use the Dirty Dozen questionnaire. This 12-item survey helps build individual profiles of these traits and explore their links to decision-making, conflict behavior, and more.

A personality profile is not a perfect reflection of a person’s traits; the questionnaire has some margin of error, as do all measurement tools. Still, the Dirty Dozen allows for the assessment of individual differences in these characteristics, helping us understand how narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy influence various areas of life and how to address them.