How Public Attitudes Are Formed and Changed

There are two main methods for forming and changing attitudes in public consciousness: persuasion and suggestion. Today, we will examine each of them in detail.

Persuasion

Persuasion is a method of influencing an individual’s consciousness by appealing to their own critical judgment. The core of this method is the selection and logical organization of facts and conclusions according to a person’s worldview. Research shows that persuasion mainly strengthens previously established attitudes. To persuade, the media independently select and shape the information distributed in society. The information people receive largely determines their subsequent actions. This is understandable, as the flow of information in the modern world is so diverse and contradictory that neither an individual nor even a group of experts can fully make sense of it. Therefore, selecting the most important information and presenting it in a form accessible to the general public is a crucial task for the entire media system. Citizens’ awareness directly depends on how, for what purposes, and by what criteria information is selected, and how accurately it reflects real facts after being edited and shortened by newspapers, radio, and television.

There are many techniques for spreading information that can convince people of its credibility:

1. Fragmented Presentation. This technique creates difficulties for the audience. Breaking up information, while giving the appearance of diversity and timeliness, prevents non-experts (the vast majority of citizens) from forming a complete picture of political events. It gives media workers additional opportunities to manipulate the audience by focusing attention on certain aspects of an event while ignoring or obscuring others. One-sided argumentation is also used, where only one opponent’s viewpoint is shown and presented as the only correct one. For example, during military operations, media supporting the attacking side provide only information justifying the intervention, while other information is blocked. This was evident during the U.S. operation in Iraq, when Western media reported the presence of weapons of mass destruction, justifying the use of force. Fragmented information ultimately disorients listeners, either dampening their interest in politics and causing apathy or forcing them to rely on commentators’ opinions.
2. Ritualization. This involves showing easily accessible official procedures and meetings for the camera, creating a sense of importance and demonstrating supposedly active political actions, which can mislead the audience.
3. Personalization. This focuses attention not on the meaning of events, but on their participants—presidents, prime ministers, prominent politicians, etc. Ritualization and personalization often lead television to show only the surface of political events, leaving essential connections unexplored. These techniques mainly aim to boost the image of participating politicians.
4. Distracting from Important Information. Persuasive messages containing strong or somewhat unacceptable arguments for the audience are more effective if the audience’s attention is distracted from the content, depriving them of the chance to counter-argue. For example, while controversial information is broadcast, unrelated footage is shown to reduce audience focus.

Suggestion

The method of emotional influence—suggestion—is even more effective on the masses than persuasion.

Suggestion (or suggestion technique) is a process of influencing a person’s psyche, associated with reduced consciousness and critical thinking, and a lack of logical analysis and evaluation. Suggestion aims to create certain states or motivate specific actions. It works by affecting a person’s emotions, and through them, their mind and will. Information absorbed through suggestion tends to be persistent and difficult to reconsider or correct, forming a set of “suggested attitudes.”

Suggestion is the only way to transmit ideas that cannot be logically proven or seem absurd from a common-sense perspective. Words and visual images have a powerful emotional impact that can overshadow rational arguments. By saturating broadcasts with emotional content that overwhelms reason, television can decisively influence political behavior, especially during election campaigns. Media supporting unpopular political forces often use vivid facts or fakes to stir up emotions and block rational voter choices. Arguments appealing to emotions reduce resistance; for example, appeals to hatred lower the internal censorship of previously learned social norms and values.

The media have developed a large arsenal of techniques to influence emotions, including:

1. “Testimonial” Technique. This involves quoting a person respected or disliked by the audience, such as an authoritative politician or cultural figure. For example, a TV channel might invite a well-known economist to recommend certain financial actions. The testimonial technique encourages the audience to adopt a specific attitude toward the idea or person mentioned. If someone the audience dislikes approves of something, the audience will likely reject it as well.
2. “Labeling” Technique. This involves attaching a negative label to people or ideas to discredit them, such as “imperialist” or “fascist.” For example, Western media labeled Yugoslav President Slobodan Milosevic as “Milosevic-Hitler” to portray him negatively.
3. “Glittering Generalities” Technique. This means using broad, emotionally positive terms—symbols—to encourage acceptance and approval, while hiding negative aspects. Examples include “free world,” “democracy,” “national identity,” and “sovereignty.” Old symbols are given new meanings and easily enter public consciousness.
4. “Unflattering Angles” Technique. To create a negative impression of unwanted politicians, TV uses unflattering camera angles or selectively edits footage, such as repeatedly showing an opposition leader wiping sweat in uncomfortable conditions. Over time, this forms a subconscious aversion among viewers.
5. “Spiral of Silence” Technique. This involves using fabricated polls or facts to convince people that the majority supports certain individuals, causing those with different views to remain silent or change their opinions out of fear of isolation. As dissenters fall silent, the “majority” voice grows louder, pressuring others to conform. This is often used before elections, with media presenting favorable poll results for their preferred candidates, even if the data is unreliable.
6. “Image Creation” Technique. In recent years, image-making has become a major field in both Western countries and Russia, focusing on creating appealing images of company leaders and politicians. Image-makers dictate not only clothing and behavior but also speech content, allowing for the creation of false reputations and distorted images.
7. “Playing the Common Man” (Populism) Technique. This aims to associate the communicator and their ideas with positive values by emphasizing their connection to “ordinary people.”
8. Use of Color. Color not only attracts attention but also influences the subconscious. Some colors are closely associated with certain emotions or events. For example, red is linked to blood or fire and causes anxiety, while green is calming and associated with nature. Political parties often use color symbolism, such as the “Yabloko” party’s use of green.

Other Methods of Influence

Placement of Stories in News Blocks

The placement of a story within a news block plays a significant role in shaping attitudes. Two main effects are noted:

1. Order Effect. Information aimed at changing attitudes should come before any unrelated content. This is based on the “serial position effect,” where information at the beginning or end of a block is best remembered. For example, BBC World TV news broadcasts start with a story designed to shape public opinion, and main news is briefly repeated at the end.
2. Primacy Effect. If a recipient receives an important message first, they are more likely to accept subsequent, more detailed information that confirms the initial impression. If later facts contradict the first impression, people are reluctant to change their minds. In the U.S., for example, there is a strict system for transmitting materials from combat zones, with all reports pre-screened by military censors and strict accreditation rules for journalists.

Speech Construction of Messages

Another crucial factor is how a message is constructed linguistically. Since ancient times, speech has been a powerful tool for suggestion due to its emotional impact, which can elicit desired responses and behaviors. There are many linguistic manipulation techniques, including:

1. Using Words with Clear Imagery. Words that easily evoke images and connect with the audience’s experience are more effective. For example, calling a political figure a “dictator” immediately creates a negative perception. This was used to discredit Saddam Hussein during the Iraq operation. Abstract terms with little connection to experience weaken the power of suggestion.
2. Considering Speech Dynamics. Messages are more effective when delivered in a strong, confident voice with varied intonation and pauses. A fast speech tempo is associated with higher intelligence. Pauses and changes in tempo attract involuntary attention.
3. Supporting Speech with Facial Expressions and Gestures. Facial expressions and gestures are less consciously controlled and are interpreted subconsciously, evoking emotional responses. Psychologists note that to create a favorable atmosphere and increase trust, communicators should avoid negative words and the word “no.” For example, the campaign slogan “No to Corruption!” is less effective than “Defeat Corruption!” or “Yes to Fighting Corruption!”

Manipulative Semantics

Manipulative semantics refers to changing the meaning of words and concepts. A type of media deception is “constructing” a message from fragments of statements or video, changing the context and thus the meaning. While individual fragments may not be lies, the overall message can be misleading. The media constantly change the meaning of words and the rules of the game depending on the situation. Political euphemisms are also created using technical terms, which have precise meanings understood only by some, but carry the authority of science and influence public perception.

Simplification and Stereotyping

There are even mathematical relationships between message simplicity and its perception. Unlike high culture, the media target the masses, so there are strict limits on message complexity and originality (even word length, though a few complex words are allowed for “spice”). The rule is: a message should be understandable to an audience with an intellectual level about ten points below the average for the target group.

Assertion and Repetition

Simplification allows the main idea to be delivered in a “short, energetic, and impressive form”—as an assertion. Assertion means refusing discussion, as anything open to debate loses credibility. It asks the audience to accept the idea without weighing pros and cons. The media, relying on mass thinking, have trained people to think in stereotypes and gradually lowered the intellectual level of messages, turning themselves into tools of dumbing down. The main method for fixing stereotypes is repetition. Repetition gives assertions extra weight and turns them into persistent ideas. Hearing them repeatedly, in various forms and contexts, people eventually accept them. As a persistent idea, repetition becomes a barrier to differing opinions, minimizing reasoning and quickly turning thought into action. Through repetition, an idea becomes detached from its author and turns into an obvious truth, independent of time, place, or person.

Fragmentation and Urgency

Dividing a complex problem into separate fragments—so the reader or viewer cannot connect them into a whole—is a key aspect of simplification. Many technical methods serve fragmentation: newspaper articles are split across pages, texts or TV programs are interrupted by ads. As Herbert Schiller described, the typical TV or radio program, or the front page of a major newspaper, is characterized by complete heterogeneity and a denial of connections between social phenomena. Discussion programs, common on radio and TV, are prime examples of fragmentation. Whatever is said is dissolved in subsequent ads, jokes, intimate scenes, and gossip.

Urgency—making information seem immediate and pressing—is a key principle of American media. The sense of urgency greatly enhances manipulative potential. Constant updates deprive information of any lasting structure, leaving people no time to process or understand it. As Schiller wrote, “The false sense of urgency, created by the emphasis on immediacy, gives the impression of extraordinary importance, which quickly dissipates. The ability to distinguish information by importance weakens. Rapidly alternating reports on disasters, wars, scandals, and heat waves prevent evaluation and judgment. The mind becomes a sieve, filled hourly with a heap of sometimes important, but mostly empty, news.”

Sensationalism

Sensationalism allows for fragmentation, ensuring people never receive complete knowledge. Sensations are stories given such importance and uniqueness that they capture and hold public attention. Under the cover of a sensation, important events can be hidden or scandals ended without notice. Preparing a sensation is painstaking and expensive work for professionals. Literature on the subject notes that sensational TV news, with live reports and interviews, usually distorts the actual event. But the effect is what matters—the audience is captivated by the “unexpected,” the unfiltered material, creating the illusion of authenticity, which is a powerful feature of television.