Brainwashing as a Method of Influence
Throughout human history, various methods of influence have come to the forefront at different times. In ancient times, the focus was on creating and maintaining sacredness; in totalitarian states, it was about demonstrating loyalty. Today, mass culture and journalism have taken center stage, both working to create model behaviors for society to emulate.
Edgar Schein and the Study of Brainwashing
Edgar Schein studied brainwashing techniques used by the Chinese on American prisoners of war during the Korean War. He describes “brainwashing” as a colloquial term for the practices of that era, but more broadly defines it as: “Any technique intended to manipulate human thinking or behavior against the individual’s will, desire, or knowledge.”
Schein builds on Kurt Lewin’s concept of change, which involves three stages: unfreezing old beliefs, introducing new beliefs, and refreezing the new beliefs. Schein discusses cognitive restructuring, which occurs when a person in the “unfreezing” state is ready to accept new ideas. Prisoners were considered guilty, even if they did not admit it themselves. Eventually, they would confess, associating themselves with more advanced cellmates, thus relieving the social pressure on themselves.
Schein also describes the phenomenon of defensive identification, where people in a hostile environment adopt the value systems of their captors—a phenomenon first described in Nazi concentration camps. Identification with the aggressor was often the only possible solution. This is also the basis of the Stockholm syndrome seen in hostages. This may help explain the puzzling behavior of those convicted in Stalin-era public trials.
Chinese Methods of Thought Reform
China had experience in changing the thinking of prisoners of war by creating study groups, for example, to study Maoism. These groups, consisting of 10–12 people, were led by a party representative and organized in villages, schools, factories, prisons, and farms. Each participant was required to process theoretical discussions through their own personal experience. There were also revolutionary universities and accusation groups.
In modern terms, this can be seen as an informational-discursive technology, where a person not only repeats propaganda but adapts it to themselves by speaking from their own position. Unlike modern propaganda, this method is not monologic but dialogic or even polylogic, as many voices are heard at once.
A close analogy can be found in the methods of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and certain psychotherapeutic practices, where participants are encouraged to share their stories. In 1939, the 12 steps of AA were formulated as a course for anti-alcohol therapy. However, today there is criticism of these methods, and no clear evidence that they work. According to The Atlantic, the success rate of such programs is only 5–10%, with 90% not achieving results. The reason for the 10% success is attributed to the supportive environment, which brings us back to the importance of social surroundings in influencing individuals.
AA is described as a supportive fellowship rather than a treatment. Lance Dodes, a critic of such methods, points out that studies show people with addictions have fewer dopamine receptors in the brain’s reward system, possibly resulting in a lower baseline level of happiness. Dodes identifies three key elements leading to addiction: a sense of helplessness, resulting rage at the inability to control one’s mind, and the pursuit of substitute actions to cope with helplessness.
In the U.S., 12-step-like programs are used to treat all kinds of addictions, including workaholism and obesity. Many of these steps reference God, leading critics to label the movement as pseudo-scientific and religious.
Discourse and Social Influence
Discursive methods, based on conversation, are important for understanding social influence. In the Chinese method, it was difficult to hide anything, as everyone was required to share their life stories, which were then critically discussed in the group. This public-individual approach was also seen in the Soviet Union, where meetings involved confessions, accusations of acquaintances, and denunciations of strangers, especially during the pre-war and immediate post-war periods. After Stalin’s death, such practices declined, replaced by collective letters condemning people, actions, or texts—often without firsthand knowledge.
In Soviet labor camps, the focus shifted to economic goals, though arrest and imprisonment remained political. Philosopher Meyer wrote about “forced labor as a method of re-education,” and Dmitry Likhachev recalled discussions on language and culture as central to intellectual life in the camps. Both Meyer and Likhachev were imprisoned for participating in discussion circles, which the Soviet authorities sought to eliminate.
Robert Lifton and the Psychology of Totalitarianism
Robert Lifton studied both the influence on American POWs and totalitarian cults. He defined “thought reform” as consisting of two main elements: confession and renunciation of past and present “evil,” and re-education to remake the person according to a communist model. These elements are closely linked, involving intellectual, emotional, and physical pressures aimed at social control and personal change.
Lifton also saw similar elements in the U.S. during the McCarthy era, where people were afraid to express dissenting views. He noted that in peaceful life, change begins with dissatisfaction with information that no longer meets expectations, followed by feelings of guilt or the need to survive, pushing people to act.
Schein identified three components of cognitive restructuring: semantic redefinition (words take on new meanings), cognitive broadening (concepts are interpreted more widely), and new standards of reasoning and evaluation (reference points for judgment change).
Lifton observed that when participants rewrite or ignore their personal histories, they learn to interpret reality through group concepts and ignore their own experiences and feelings. Individuals are valued only when they conform to the group’s doctrine.
Modern Parallels and the Future of Propaganda
Elements of thought reform and brainwashing can also be seen in psychodrama and group training, though these are non-political forms of transformation. Discursive propaganda combines individual and public elements, with people voicing texts from their own perspective, unlike traditional top-down monologic propaganda.
Modern methods of influence have adopted some elements from the past. Future propaganda will likely be even more individualized, though true personalization—where the object of communication becomes a subject—remains elusive. Social pressure is evident in many modern theories, such as Thaler and Sunstein’s “nudge theory” and British information operations, which aim to change group behavior.
Brainwashing as a technology is designed for closed systems, such as totalitarian cults, but some of its elements are used in open systems familiar to us today.