What Is Personality?

Personality is a concept most of us intuitively understand—it’s what makes us “us,” encompassing the collection of traits, characteristics, and quirks that set us apart from others. However, from a scientific perspective, personality is much more complex. It can be described as a consistent pattern of states, cognition, and desires (goals) that drive behavior. Personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. While there are many definitions, what matters most is that personality is a key measure of a person, which is why it has long been a central focus of study.

Over time, various personality theories have tried to determine exactly how many personality traits exist. Earlier models include Eysenck’s three-factor theory and Cattell’s 16-factor model. However, the most widely accepted theory today is the “Big Five” or Goldberg’s Five-Factor Model of personality.

The Big Five

Lewis Goldberg is perhaps the most renowned researcher in the field of personality psychology. His groundbreaking work reduced Raymond Cattell’s 16 “fundamental factors” to five main ones, which closely align with factors identified by other researchers in the 1960s.

The five core factors identified by Goldberg are:

• Extraversion
• Agreeableness
• Conscientiousness
• Neuroticism
• Openness to Experience

Goldberg’s model doesn’t provide a complete explanation of personality, but it covers a significant portion of its related aspects. The five factors aren’t necessarily traits themselves, but rather broad dimensions that encompass many interrelated characteristics. For example, agreeableness includes generosity, friendliness, and warmth (on the positive side), as well as aggressiveness and indifference (on the negative side). Each factor represents a spectrum between two extremes, with most people falling somewhere in between. For instance, extraversion ranges from extreme introversion to extreme extraversion.

Let’s take a closer look at each factor. While the descriptions may sound a bit like horoscopes, they are based on research and practical observation.

Extraversion

This factor spans the spectrum from extraversion to introversion. It reflects where a person draws their energy and how they interact with others. Extraverts recharge through social interaction, while introverts may find socializing draining and regain energy through solitude.

Traits associated with extraversion include: sociable, assertive, reserved, solitary, energetic, talkative, self-confident, cheerful, affectionate, friendly, calm.

People high in extraversion seek out social opportunities and often become the “life of the party.” They are characterized by excitement and high emotional expression, and tend to be more enterprising and creative. Those low in extraversion are quieter, introspective, reserved, thoughtful, more traditional, and may struggle with abstract thinking.

High extraversion is a predictor of leadership and success in management, sales, and professional training. Due to its ease of measurement and stability over time, extraversion is an excellent predictor of effective functioning, overall well-being, positive emotions, and increased confidence in task performance.

Agreeableness

This factor reflects how well people get along with others. Agreeableness is about our orientation toward others and how we typically interact in social situations.

Traits associated with agreeableness include: altruistic, trusting, modest, humble, kind, competitive, manipulative, courteous, loyal, tactful, helpful, selfless, sensitive.

Highly agreeable people are loving, sensitive, and respectful of others’ needs. They are empathetic with friends and family and kind to strangers. Those low in agreeableness are less likely to be trusted or liked, and may be cold, rude, antagonistic, or sarcastic. While not all low-agreeableness individuals are cruel, they are unlikely to inspire warm feelings.

Agreeableness can be motivated by a desire to fulfill social obligations, follow norms, or genuine concern for others’ well-being. Highly agreeable people tend to have many close friends and good family relationships, but may risk missing out on personal opportunities by always putting others first.

Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness is characterized by the tendency to control impulses and act in socially acceptable ways that facilitate goal achievement.

Traits associated with conscientiousness include: persistent, ambitious, thorough, disciplined, consistent, predictable, self-controlled, reliable, resourceful, hardworking, energetic, determined, forward-thinking.

People high in conscientiousness are likely to succeed in school and careers, hold leadership positions, and achieve goals through planning and foresight. They pay attention to detail, consider how their actions affect others, and are mindful of deadlines. Those low in conscientiousness tend to procrastinate, avoid responsibility, and act impulsively.

This factor is linked to achievement, security, and a negative attitude toward excitement and stimulation. Conscientious people value order, duty, achievement, and self-discipline, and consciously work to improve their competence. Conscientiousness is strongly associated with lifelong learning, effective work, and career success, as well as positive adaptation to life’s challenges and mature coping strategies. It negatively correlates with depression, smoking, and substance abuse.

Conscientiousness is slightly negatively related to neuroticism and positively related to agreeableness, but has little connection to the other Big Five factors.

Neuroticism

Neuroticism is the Big Five factor where a high score indicates negative traits. It doesn’t mean someone is mean or incompetent; rather, it measures self-confidence and emotional stability.

Traits associated with neuroticism include: awkward, pessimistic, moody, jealous, irritable, fearful, nervous, anxious, shy, cautious, self-critical, insecure, unstable, hypersensitive.

People high in neuroticism often experience anxiety, sadness, shyness, and low self-esteem. They may be temperamental or quick-tempered, and are prone to emotional instability and self-doubt. Those low in neuroticism are more likely to feel confident and enterprising, and may be brave, stable, and free from worry.

Neuroticism negatively correlates with self-esteem, general self-efficacy, and motivation. Emotional instability and vulnerability to stress can hinder job success. Neuroticism is also linked to difficulty quitting smoking, poor adaptation, substance abuse, and mental health issues. It negatively correlates with agreeableness and conscientiousness, and has a weak, unfavorable relationship with extraversion and openness.

Overall, high neuroticism is associated with additional life challenges, including addiction, poor job performance, and unhealthy adaptation to change. While a high neuroticism score doesn’t doom someone to an unhappy life, those in this group should work on building self-confidence, developing coping resources, and avoiding addictive substances.

Openness to Experience

Openness to experience reflects the depth and complexity of a person’s mental life and experiences. Sometimes called intellect or imagination, openness is about a willingness to experience and learn new things, and the ability to think creatively.

Traits associated with openness include: imaginative, curious, insightful, diverse, original, daring, intelligent, creative, inquisitive, receptive, intellectual, complex.

People high in openness love learning, enjoy art, participate in creative activities or hobbies, and like meeting new people. Those low in openness prefer routine over variety and are less interested in art and entertainment.

Openness increases the likelihood of holding leadership positions, is linked to universal values like helping others and tolerance, and correlates with broad intellectual skills and knowledge that grow over time. It also influences creativity and originality. Openness has little relationship with the other Big Five factors, except for a weak connection with neuroticism and extraversion.

Openness is the trait least likely to change over time, but it is most likely to help a person grow. Those high in openness should use their advantage to explore the world and themselves.

Big Five Assessment Methods

There are several methods for measuring the Big Five personality factors, but the most reliable and widely known is the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R), along with the more recent BFI questionnaire. The original NEO-PI-R assessed only three of the five factors, but it was later expanded to cover all five, each with six sub-facets, and contains 240 questions. The BFI differs from the NEO-PI-R by using sentence fragments as prompts, which is theorized to increase the test’s validity.