“Know Thyself”: Strategies for Human Self-Development in Ancient Philosophy
The foundation of this exploration is the anthropological principle that self-development is a human activity aimed at discovering and cultivating one’s inner strengths and essential characteristics. Through this, a person creatively realizes their individuality and becomes an active subject of their own life. This goal closely aligns with the general aim of philosophy: the pursuit of wisdom. Thus, philosophical inquiry and self-development practices have gone hand in hand for millennia, from ancient times to the present day. Philosophy is not just a branch of knowledge—it is a way of living. This understanding of philosophy as a lifestyle is especially characteristic of antiquity, where each school offered its own strategy for human development.
Philosophy is directly connected to self-improvement practices, but it also often involves preparation for death. As Socrates said in Plato’s “Phaedo”: “Those who truly devote themselves to philosophy are practicing nothing other than dying and being dead.” Contemplating death is one way to look beyond the boundaries of existence and gain a retrospective perspective on one’s life. The wisdom sought through mental exercises is the art of living and dying. The focus of inquiry shifts from the external world to the subject of knowledge itself.
Anthropocentrism and the Birth of Self-Development
The beginning of anthropocentrism in Western philosophy is often attributed to Protagoras’ statement: “Man is the measure of all things.” Protagoras was among the first to place the human figure at the center of not only his philosophy but of being itself, highlighting the unique features of humans compared to other living beings. One interpretation of Protagoras’ idea is that each individual is the measure of the things around them, primarily for themselves. This is because subjectivity determines things based on the unique combination of experiences each person has. This emphasizes the autonomy of the individual’s perspective, which shapes how they perceive things as good or bad, useful or useless.
The Sophists had a clear practical goal: to educate statesmen and other leaders of public life. Their activities played a significant role in shaping ideas about self-development. Their aim was to train the mind, though they disagreed on which type of knowledge best accomplished this.
Socrates and the Art of Self-Knowledge
The next major milestone in the philosophy of self-development is Socrates, whose name is inseparable from the motto “Know thyself.” Self-knowledge is the foundation of personal development and, in Socratic philosophy, becomes the main goal. For Socrates, self-knowledge is impossible in isolation; it is achieved through interaction, highlighting the social nature of humans. In dialogue with reasonable and “responsible” people, through questioning and seeking answers, the path to truth emerges, and those who accompany us on this path become our friends.
Karl Jaspers described Socrates’ pedagogical goal as searching together with others, constantly questioning and turning people toward themselves. Education was not a one-way influence but involved creating an environment where people could jointly discover themselves and the truth about themselves. Socrates emphasized the art of dialogue and questioning, which leads to moral self-improvement. Evil deeds, he believed, are committed out of ignorance—because people do not know the boundaries between good and evil. What we know determines what we do, and what we do shapes who we are. Thus, in Socratic philosophy, virtue and knowledge are interconnected, with truth and goodness pushing a person toward each other.
Socrates restored the connection between education and the cultivation of high moral qualities, but unlike the Sophists, he did not oppose political goals to moral education. Social harmony and political balance are achieved through education, as the overall level of culture and morality of each individual determines the well-being of society as a whole.
Cynicism: The Path to Self-Sufficiency
Dialogue is a reliable companion for self-knowledge and moral development, but it is not a self-sufficient method. One Socratic school, the Cynics, advocated seeking truth in nature. The Cynics guided people toward renouncing desires, claiming that the fewer desires one has, the more self-sufficient and independent they become from external conditions or social approval. Self-sufficiency is the highest good and the goal of self-development, implying freedom from religious dogmas and social or cultural stereotypes about how one should behave. Their ideal, “autarky,” means limiting one’s needs and being independent from things, circumstances, and others’ opinions, including those of family and state. Achieving this requires relying solely on practical reason and personal well-being, which contrasts with Platonic ideas about the world of ideals and universal values.
Plato: Harmony of the Soul and the State
In Plato’s philosophy, the problem of humanity revolves around questions of justice in social life and the individual’s approach to the idea of the Good. Knowledge is fundamental in human life, but Plato sought to purify knowledge from randomness and opinion, establishing criteria for truth. He called for the “ideal state” to help people acquire essential characteristics and overcome unworthy ones, modeling the state after the structure of the human soul.
Plato was among the first to describe the inner world of the self, dividing it into rational, appetitive, and affective parts. Harmony among these, with reason in the lead, allows one to access pure ideas and organize life based on knowledge. For the soul to strive for the common good, reason must dominate. Intellectual and moral development is thus a key task for both individuals and the state.
Plato saw human nature as rooted in the immortal soul, which joins the body at birth and is the source of knowledge and life. The soul distinguishes humans from animals. This dualistic view sees the soul as immortal and spiritual, while the body is mortal and material. The tragedy of human existence lies in the soul’s pull toward eternal ideas and the body’s pull toward the animal world. The meaning of self-improvement is to align one’s life with the idea of the Good—not material well-being, but the realization of the Good in one’s life, achieved through education and upbringing.
Plato emphasized that humans are always in interaction with others, and individuality is born from these interactions. Paradoxically, Plato saw the preservation of individuality as the goal of the state. The central problem of the Republic is the individual, though justice is often cited as the state’s highest value. Social harmony is possible when people recognize others’ individuality and interact in ways that do not infringe upon it. This is justice: unity in diversity in social or interpersonal contexts. The Republic’s goal is optimal interaction among people, achievable when personal and collective goals align. Achieving harmony requires special attention to shared values and concepts of the Good.
The state’s most important “production” is knowledge, whose quality depends on the ability to recognize truth. The path to truth involves overcoming personal errors and social prejudices, which requires courage and critical thinking. Plato’s allegory of the cave illustrates the courage needed to face the blinding truth. Transformation through this process is what Plato called “paideia”—the process and result of becoming fully human. The goal is the “idea of man,” the ideal of self-development.
Aristotle: Friendship, Logic, and Happiness
Human self-development is greatly aided by communication. Aristotle famously described humans as “political animals,” born to live together. Aristotle, a philosopher, scientist, and outstanding teacher, placed great importance on friendship in personal development. A friend is a reliable support and companion on the path of self-knowledge and moral and intellectual improvement. Through friends, we see our own values and interests reflected, and in open, trusting communication, our authentic selves are revealed.
The foundation of human development is the development of thinking. To truly be human, one must learn to think correctly. These rules of thought later became formal logic, whose importance is hard to overestimate. Logical thinking means consistency and non-contradiction, but people are prone to extremes and errors, especially in isolation. Living in society, people help each other find balance and achieve the common good—happiness.
Aristotle believed that the logic of thought and action—consistency and purposefulness toward the good—distinguishes the educated from the uneducated. Achieving this is difficult and takes years to develop the habit of right thinking and action. This is the path to a happy life, which is satisfaction with oneself and one’s achievements.
Bertrand Russell, in “A History of Western Philosophy,” described Aristotle’s “best individual” as a true aristocrat, characterized above all by magnanimity. The life of a magnanimous person is filled with virtue and moderation, while excess leads away from happiness. Such honor is achieved through constant moral self-improvement, increasing good and minimizing evil. Self-development consists in striving for justice, courage, and self-control, which are potentially present in everyone. The noble person is self-sufficient, acts honestly and openly, and speaks calmly and deeply. He gladly helps others, for help breeds gratitude, which in turn increases the good.
Stoicism: Self-Control and Resilience
Stoicism offers its own path of human development, with qualities still highly valued and applied in modern self-improvement strategies. One of the main Stoic principles is self-control, which means willfully refraining from extreme emotional expressions such as grief, anger, aggression, or excessive sentimentality. Self-mastery is seen in several aspects: emotional, volitional, moral, and intellectual—the ability to manage one’s thinking. Philosophy is a discipline of the mind, and in Stoicism, this means identifying mental habits, logical errors, and stereotypes that lead us away from reality and ourselves. Stoic mental discipline fosters subjectivity and self-awareness, key components of human development.
Stoicism’s instructive nature aligns with its practical application in daily life, elements of which are used today in education and psychotherapy. Stoicism teaches the courage to be oneself while maintaining flexibility and not wasting energy on unattainable goals. The wise person is unconcerned with what cannot be changed; to grieve or be angry about it is folly. To distinguish what is within our power from what is not, we must know ourselves, our strengths, and our limits. Reflection—examining our actions, motives, thoughts, and the events that led to them—helps clarify this. Reflective thinking seeks to identify and analyze the foundations of our actions.
Self-discipline forms a “culture of self,” a set of personal values realized in worldview, activity, and relationships with others and oneself. By understanding our inner nature and reactions, we can transform them, for example, when our moral views change but our behavior has not yet caught up. Thus, we can change habits, choosing more constructive and reasonable ones to achieve the good. As knowledge grows, our consciousness expands, and our criteria for good and truth become more refined and selective. The world reveals more details and nuances. Humans are part of nature; knowledge aims to discover its laws, and self-discipline aims to realize them in our own lives.
Moral development in Stoicism means an active approach to the good. One should not wait for special conditions or signs to practice virtue. Goodness is an end in itself, and its consequences primarily ennoble the doer, not the recipient. Every conflict, or at least its scale, is in our hands; to escalate or seek compromise is a personal choice. “Today I escaped anxiety. Or no, I discarded it, because it was within me, in my own perception—not outside.” (Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, Book 9/13).
Personal choice is the main way to express freedom. The greatest wisdom and art of living is to distinguish virtue from what is not and to align our intentions with it. Happiness lies in how we view the world, in our attitude toward reality. We cannot control the laws of nature, but we can achieve a high level of self-mastery; thus, freedom is realized in how we respond to external influences and circumstances, which is always within our power.
Seneca spoke of the importance of good examples in self-development, through which we can cultivate character traits and useful habits found in a mentor. “We need someone whose example would shape our character.” Freedom is also expressed in choosing whom and what to emulate. Even imitation is an act of free will.
The Stoic approach to mistakes is also important for self-development, as the path to growth is paved with errors—or rather, the lessons we learn from them. Marcus Aurelius said, “Nothing happens to anyone that he cannot endure.” Therefore, we should not be overly afraid of being wrong, and if we make a mistake, we should not grieve; rather, we should be grateful, for every mistake is a step, an opportunity to become better.
Epicureanism: The Pursuit of Pleasure and Prudence
The Epicurean school offers its own strategy for self-development. For Epicureans, the highest good is pleasure, but not all pleasures qualify. The principle of Epicureanism is the minimization of suffering and the maximization of pleasure, which relates to self-development. Growth occurs when one seeks a life free from suffering and filled with higher-order pleasures. What are these higher pleasures, and how can they be achieved? Answering these questions gives us the Epicurean formula for self-development.
There are two types of pleasure: static and dynamic. Static pleasure is the state of satisfaction, natural well-being, good health, and absence of irritation or suffering. “Tranquility, as taught by Epicurus, is achieved not by withdrawing from life or becoming a hermit, as in Stoicism or Skepticism, but by studying nature and knowing its secrets.” The health of the soul is valued even more and is harder to achieve. Dynamic pleasure is the enjoyment found in activity itself—such as play or conversation, or the process of quenching thirst or hunger, or contemplating beauty.
The highest pleasures are those of the mind. How can we achieve them? In his letter to Menoeceus, Epicurus gives advice for self-development, calling them “the basic principles of a beautiful life.” The first is to practice philosophy, which he recommends for both the young and the old to maintain the health of the soul. “Let no one delay the study of philosophy while young nor weary of it when old.” The main object of reflection should be the question of happiness and how to achieve it. Epicurus also advises belief in the gods, contemplating their blessedness and immortality, but without excessive fantasy or reliance on popular opinion.
Regarding the fear of death, Epicurus reminds us that “death is nothing to us, for when we exist, death is not present, and when death is present, we do not exist.” The wise person does not fear death but, recognizing its inevitability, treats time with care, filling life with quality experiences. The value of life lies not in its length but in its richness with higher pleasures. Desires are divided into three types, and wisdom lies in choosing those that “contribute to the health of the body and tranquility of the soul, for this is the goal of a happy life.” Not all pleasures lead to this goal; some turn into suffering after brief enjoyment and should be avoided by reason, in pursuit of the highest good.
The highest good, and thus the goal of self-development, is prudence. “From prudence spring all other virtues.” Prudence tells us “that it is impossible to live pleasantly without living wisely, honorably, and justly, and conversely, it is impossible to live wisely, honorably, and justly without living pleasantly.” The wise person, Epicurus says, treats the idea of unyielding fate with irony. He acknowledges that some things happen by necessity, but others depend on the person. Thus, fate is not the result of powerlessness or fatalistic determinism, but a creative process of interaction between humans and nature.
To emphasize the special place of reason in Epicurean self-development: “It is better to be unhappy with reason than happy without it.” “We call pleasure the beginning and end of a happy life. It is our first and innate good; it is the starting point of every choice and avoidance; and to it we return, using feeling as the standard for judging every good.”
The main goals of self-development for the ancient Greek philosopher are autarky (self-sufficiency), a sense of measure, self-knowledge, and confidence without illusory ambitions or anxiety. This special state of mind is achieved through self-observation and limiting one’s needs. Along the path to self-sufficiency, individual principles—the core foundations of personality—are revealed, making it easier to reject dogmas and social stereotypes and maintain discipline in physical and intellectual pursuits, including informational and other “diets.” A high degree of self-mastery leads to accepting responsibility for one’s life. Not circumstances, but oneself, is the cause of bitterness or happiness. The result of these efforts is tranquility and equanimity.
Conclusion: The Legacy of Ancient Philosophical Self-Development
On the pluralistic ruins left by the Sophists, the connection between knowledge and the good was firmly established. Socrates proclaimed that those who know the good will not commit evil. The criterion of truth is conscience, which lives in every person; one must only listen to it. The natural, original goodness of the human soul and virtue in the heart are the inner compass—the immortal soul, which contains the link to eternity and something far beyond our individual experience. The self-moving center, a fragment of the universe, carries the laws of the cosmos and absolute knowledge. All that remains is to make the effort to remember. Courage of spirit, intellectual enthusiasm, and boldness of mind become special values, inspiring us to go beyond the known and the traditionally accepted. Life is seen as a creative process, not a struggle against circumstances. Fate is a creative interaction between nature and humanity.
In addition to anthropocentrism, ancient philosophers set the trend for social questions, making issues of communal living central. The image of the citizen emerges, for whom prudence, wisdom, and justice are key qualities. The social nature of humans is emphasized, as is the importance of interaction, communication, and friendship. Friendship is not just mutual aid for survival, but a way to know oneself through another, like looking in a mirror, thanks to open and trusting dialogue.
A life strategy cannot do without a foundation, which is the result of self-observation. It is this self-knowledge that can be relied upon when planning one’s life path, revealing individual values and long-term goals. Self-knowledge uncovers the depths of the inner world, whose variety of shades can seem to outshine the external world. Structuring one’s thinking, reflection, and forming constructive habits become new tools for those who have absorbed the ideas of ancient sages.