Non-Imperative Direct Forms of Influence in Communication

Non-imperative direct forms of influence on a person include requests, suggestions (advice), persuasion, praise, support, and consolation.

Request

The famous French composer Michel Legrand once said: “It’s not normal to do something you weren’t asked to do. Laziness is a normal state.” Clearly, for people with such a temperament, a request is a powerful motivator that gets them out of a “hibernation state.” More seriously, this form of external initiation of a person’s motivational process is used when one does not want to give the influence an official character or when someone needs help. In many cases, people (especially children and subordinates) are flattered when, instead of a command or demand, an elder or superior uses a form of address that shows some dependence of the requester on the person being asked. This immediately changes the subject’s attitude toward the influence: they may begin to feel their own importance in the situation.

Milgram and Sabini asked students to participate in a study on breaking a simple social norm: they had to ask passengers on the New York subway to give up their seats. To their surprise, 56% of those approached immediately stood up, even before hearing an explanation (Milgram, Sabini, 1983; Myers, 2004, p. 262).

In a study by J. Darley and B. Latané (1968), the conditions under which a request was more likely to prompt people on the street to help were examined. It was found that the type of request mattered. Informational help (such as asking for the time or directions) was given more often than material help. The manner of the request also had a significant impact. People were more likely to give money if the requester first asked for the time or introduced themselves; when mentioning a lost wallet or the need to make a phone call, two-thirds of passersby responded positively. Female requesters were more successful, especially with men. People were also more likely to give money if the requester was accompanied by someone else.

In a field experiment, a female assistant asked students waiting in line to use a library copier if she could cut in front. When she simply asked for a favor (“Can I use the copier?”), 60% agreed. This shows that the main strategy for getting agreement is simply to ask for a favor. To increase effectiveness, she asked another group, “Can I use the copier because I need to make some copies?” The agreement rate jumped to 93%. The word “because” had a magical effect, implying a reason and triggering an automatic response (Zimbardo & Leippe, 2000, p. 281).

A request is more effective when it is clear, polite, and shows respect for the person’s right to refuse, especially if fulfilling the request would inconvenience them.

Suggestion (Advice)

To suggest something to someone is to present it as a possible solution to a problem. Acceptance depends on how desperate the situation is, the authority of the person making the suggestion, the attractiveness of the suggestion, and the personality of the recipient. For example, a choleric person is likely to resist a suggestion, a sanguine person will be curious, a melancholic will avoid it, and a phlegmatic will either refuse or delay, needing time to consider.

“To ask for advice is to seek approval for a decision already made.” — Ambrose Bierce

“You can give someone reasonable advice, but you can’t teach them reasonable behavior.” — F. La Rochefoucauld

Persuasion as a Form of Influence

Persuasion is a method of influencing a person’s consciousness by appealing to their critical judgment. It is based on explaining the essence of a phenomenon, causal relationships, and highlighting the social and personal significance of a decision. As the poet I. S. Nikitin wrote: “Your words touched my soul.” Persuasion is successful when a person can independently justify their decision, weighing its pros and cons. Persuasion appeals to analytical thinking, relying on logic and evidence.

To persuade someone means to achieve agreement with a certain point of view through logical reasoning, leading to a change in consciousness so that the persuaded person is ready to defend and act on that viewpoint (Sherkovin, 1973, pp. 164-165).

Myers (2004) notes that the success of persuasion depends on who is persuading (the communicator), what is being said (the message), how it is delivered (the channel), and to whom (the audience).

The Communicator

The perception of information depends on the communicator’s credibility and reliability. Credibility is seen as competence and trustworthiness. A communicator can appear competent by expressing opinions the audience agrees with, being presented as an expert, or speaking confidently. Reliability is influenced by the communicator’s manner; people trust those who seem not to have an agenda. Fast speech also increases perceived credibility and leaves less time for counterarguments (Miller et al., 1976).

If a credible person’s message is convincing, its influence may fade as the source is forgotten, while the influence of a non-credible source may grow over time if the message is remembered but the source is not—this is called the “sleeper effect” (Cook & Flay, 1978; Pratkanis et al., 1988; Myers, 2004, p. 294).

Attractiveness also matters: people are more persuaded by communicators who are attractive or similar to themselves (Dion & Stein, 1978; Pallak et al., 1983; Van Knippenberg & Wilke, 1992; Wilder, 1990).

Audience Characteristics

People with average self-esteem are most easily persuaded (Rhodes & Wood, 1992). Older people are more conservative than younger ones (Sears, 1986). Attitudes formed in adolescence can last a lifetime. In states of excitement or anxiety, people are more susceptible to persuasion. Good moods also facilitate persuasion, as people think more positively and associate the message with their mood (Petty et al., 1993; Bodenhausen, 1993; Schwarz et al., 1991). Conformists and women are generally more persuadable. Men with low self-esteem, feelings of uselessness, alienation, or aggression are less susceptible. Higher intelligence leads to more critical evaluation of arguments.

Message Content

Whether logic or emotion is more effective depends on the audience. Educated, analytical listeners respond better to logical arguments; others respond better to emotional appeals. Fear-based messages are effective if they also offer solutions (Sherman et al., 1985), but excessive fear can backfire, causing anxiety or distrust. Information presented first is more persuasive (primacy effect), but if there is a delay, the most recent message is more effective (recency effect).

“A simple, passionate person can persuade more than an eloquent but indifferent one.” — F. La Rochefoucauld

“You can often achieve more with persuasion than with force.” — Aesop

“Don’t impose on others what you wouldn’t want for yourself: tastes differ.” — B. Shaw

Communication Channel

Arguments presented by another person are more persuasive than those we tell ourselves. The weakest are those we think silently, stronger are those we say aloud to ourselves, and the strongest are those presented by someone else, even at our request.

Persuasion can be didactic (the persuader speaks) or Socratic (the persuadee is involved in discussion and can express disagreement). Conviction can be formed directly or indirectly (by reducing anxiety, uncertainty, or ignorance). Persuasion can be achieved not only by words but also by actions and personal example.

Expressing confidence is key in persuasion, especially in interpersonal interactions. However, overdoing it can cause resistance. The most effective persuaders express confidence but reduce pressure and seek rapport as they sense victory, thus influencing people and making friends (Zimbardo & Leippe, 2000, pp. 291-292).

People value their freedom. When social pressure threatens their autonomy, they may rebel. For example, children often do the opposite of what parents insist on. Smart parents offer choices: “Time to wash up. Do you want a bath or a shower?” (Myers, 2004, p. 279).

Persuasion Methods

• Fundamental method: Directly presenting all information supporting the argument.
• Contradiction method: Identifying contradictions in the opponent’s arguments and ensuring your own are consistent.
• Step-by-step method: Presenting arguments gradually, seeking agreement at each stage.
• Chunking method: Dividing the opponent’s arguments into strong, medium, and weak, focusing on refuting the weak ones.
• Ignoring method: Ignoring unrefutable facts.
• Emphasis method: Highlighting arguments that align with common interests.
• Two-sided argumentation: Presenting both pros and cons for greater credibility, especially effective with educated people.
• “Yes, but…” method: Agreeing first, then presenting counterarguments after a pause.
• Apparent support: Supporting the opponent’s arguments before introducing counterarguments.
• Boomerang method: Turning the opponent’s arguments against them.

Research shows that when college students were asked to change someone’s attitude, they spoke faster, louder, more smoothly, and made more eye contact, making their messages more persuasive (Mehrabian & Williams, 1969). Effective counselors also speak slightly louder (Packwood, 1974). Attractive people tend to be more persuasive, possibly because their speech is faster and smoother (Chaiken, 1979). Fast speech creates an impression of competence and makes it harder for listeners to process information systematically (Zimbardo & Leippe, 2000, pp. 297-298).

When Persuasion Is Most Effective

• When it addresses one or several equally strong needs of the subject.
• When the persuader is calm; agitation is seen as uncertainty and reduces effectiveness.
• When discussing secondary issues that don’t require a major change in needs.
• When the persuader is confident in their solution and appeals to both reason and emotion.
• When both sides’ arguments are considered, not just repeated.
• When starting with points of agreement to build momentum.
• When a plan is made to anticipate counterarguments.

Petty and Cacioppo (1986) proposed that persuasion occurs via two routes. When people are motivated and able to think, they focus on arguments (central route). If arguments are strong, persuasion is likely. If not, they will be challenged. When people are distracted or uninterested, they rely on cues (peripheral route), such as familiar sayings, which are more persuasive than original but complex arguments. The central route leads to lasting attitude and behavior change; the peripheral route leads to temporary, shallow change (Myers, 2004, pp. 290, 292).

Tips for Effective Persuasion

• Show the importance and ease of your proposal.
• Present different viewpoints and analyze outcomes.
• Emphasize the advantages and downplay the disadvantages.
• Consider the individual’s background and tailor arguments accordingly.
• Never directly tell someone they are wrong; instead, suggest reviewing the issue together.
• Create the illusion that the idea is the other person’s own.
• Don’t immediately counter arguments; show respect for the other’s concerns.
• Criticize arguments, not the person, and start with agreement where possible.
• Be clear and concise, using pauses between arguments.
• Involve the person in discussion and decision-making.
• Present your viewpoint calmly and tactfully.

Freedman and Sears (1965) showed how hard it is to persuade people: high schoolers warned about a lecture on “Why teens shouldn’t drive” stuck to their opinions, while those not warned were more easily persuaded. Sudden attacks on beliefs are more effective; given time, people prepare defenses (Chen et al., 1992; Petty & Cacioppo, 1977, 1979). Distraction can also increase persuasion (Festinger & Maccoby, 1964; Keating & Brock, 1974; Osterhaus & Brock, 1970; Myers, 2004, p. 316).

Sometimes, persuasion is aided by unrelated factors, such as the presence of an attractive person. Some people, like Hitler, were considered to have a gift for persuasion, able to win over even strong-willed individuals (Ribbentrop, “Memoirs of a Nazi Diplomat,” 1998, pp. 55-56).

Praise

Praise is a positive influence—an approving comment or high evaluation of someone’s work or actions. Everyone needs praise. N. N. Obozov notes gender differences: women need their work to be recognized, so housewives and retired women often suffer from unmet needs for recognition. Men also like to be praised, but if they are confident in their work, they maintain high self-esteem even without external recognition. Thus, men’s self-assessments are more independent of others’ opinions.

Support and Consolation

Words of support can persuade, encourage, inspire, calm, or cheer up. Supporting does not mean making false statements or telling people what they want to hear. When support is not based on facts, it can lead to destructive behavior.

To console means to help someone see themselves and their situation more positively. Consolation involves empathetic responses to someone’s failure or grief, showing understanding, sympathy, and acceptance. Consoling provides support and reassurance.

Brant Burleson (1994) defined consolation strategies as messages aimed at reducing or alleviating emotional distress. He focused on everyday stresses, not severe depression or grief. With James L. Applegate, he developed a method for assessing the sophistication of comforting messages—those that are clear, skillful, and acknowledge the other’s feelings. Sophisticated strategies are listener-oriented, less judgmental, more attentive to feelings, and offer explanations for emotions.

Later, Burleson and colleagues analyzed the outcomes of consolation, suggesting that effective consolation not only helps others cope but also benefits the consoler by boosting self-esteem and likability. Those who can comfort others tend to have longer-lasting relationships. Burleson’s research provided new insights into consolation as a communication process that helps people in distress understand events, identify their feelings, and reassess upsetting situations (Verderber & Verderber, 2007, p. 139).

It is believed that women are better at consoling, but research shows that men and women use similar criteria to evaluate sensitivity and effectiveness. Men focus more on actions, women on feelings. Men are better at consoling in achievement-related situations, but less sensitive and effective in other cases.