What Is Character? History and Definition

Every person is unique and represents a distinct personality. These individual traits set us apart from others, reflecting our willpower and ability to overcome life’s challenges. Each individual possesses a unique set of characteristics that shape their attitude not only toward themselves but also toward others, as well as toward work, learning, and creativity. In psychology, these features are referred to as “character.”

Classically, psychology defines character as a combination of stable mental traits that determine a person’s behavior in various life situations when interacting with others. The word itself comes from the Greek “χαρακτήρ,” meaning trait, sign, feature, or mark.

Back in Ancient Greece, Theophrastus, a student of Plato, wrote “Ethical Characters,” where he attempted to classify people by their character traits. He wondered why Greeks raised in similar conditions were so different from each other. Although he never found a definitive answer, he described thirty types of pronounced behaviors associated with various vices—boasting, flattery, grumbling, pride, and stinginess.

To avoid confusion, it’s important to distinguish “temperament” from “character.” Psychology defines temperament as a stable personality trait that primarily influences an individual’s higher nervous activity and determines their reaction to events. Temperament is rooted in physiology and often inherited, so it’s not shaped by upbringing or life experience.

In contrast, character is constantly formed and transformed throughout life, so equating the two is incorrect. However, there is a clear connection: temperament influences the development of character over time. While this is a topic for a separate article, here we’ll focus on how character forms, its traits, typology, and development.

How Character Develops

Character develops through upbringing, shaped by both physiological and social factors. The development of an individual’s character, with their unique genetic makeup, is influenced not only by gender, body type, eye and hair color, but also by innate abilities and temperament. Character formation can be seen as a vector combining upbringing and genetics.

Personality and Character

A mature personality controls their character, as character is a subordinate structure. Conversely, when a person acts impulsively based on character traits, it’s typical of psychologically unstable or immature personalities. Thus, character is shaped not only by upbringing but also by self-development, as individuals correct negative tendencies.

Personality traits can be divided into motivational and instrumental. Character manifests in both: in choosing a goal (motivational) and in determining how to achieve it (instrumental).

• Traits that determine actions when choosing activities (rationality, calculation, or their opposites);
• Traits related to achieving goals (persistence, determination, consistency, or their absence). Willpower plays a key role here;
• Instrumental traits linked to temperament (calmness-anxiety, introversion-extroversion).

In other words, character is ballast for the weak and a powerful tool for the strong. A mature personality uses their character when needed and sets it aside when it becomes an obstacle.

Personality can develop, while character can only be strengthened. The presence, emergence, and strengthening of character are not debated, nor are levels of character development discussed, but it’s natural to talk about levels of personality development. When evaluating a person’s personality and character, they may align or differ—there are great personalities with poor character, and unremarkable people with “golden” character.

Examples of Notable People with Difficult Characters

• Bobby Fischer – A chess legend and youth idol, but known for a very difficult character. He once refused a dinner invitation from President Nixon, saying he didn’t like people watching him eat. He was also known for his strong antisemitism and hatred of the U.S., eventually renouncing his citizenship and supporting the 9/11 attacks.
• Mikhail Lermontov – Despite his literary talent, he was known for his “sharp tongue,” envious nature, and pettiness. He once scolded a professor for not providing enough material in a lecture. Many noted his off-putting appearance and constant dissatisfaction.
• Steve Jobs – The celebrated IT genius was, according to friends and colleagues, very difficult to work with. After his death, stories emerged of his masterful and sophisticated humiliation of others, constant rudeness, and erratic behavior. Some people, however, do not consider him a genius.

The “creations” of great people are expressions of their personality, so future generations benefit from their work, not their character. Those around them, however, bear the brunt of a genius’s character, making it more significant to them than the person’s achievements. As A.S. Pushkin once said, “genius and villainy are incompatible”—but perhaps he was wrong.

Character Traits

Various groups throughout a person’s life (classmates, friends, military units, family) help shape character. Depending on the influence of these reference groups, different character traits develop.

Mental qualities that influence behavior in different situations are character traits. Examples include autonomy and dependence in action, boasting and modesty in society, courage and cowardice in the face of danger. Psychology identifies the following traits:

• Volitional (persistence, independence, confidence, courage, decisiveness);
• Intellectual (thoughtfulness, curiosity, frivolity, quick-wittedness);
• Emotional (cheerfulness, sensitivity, emotionality, responsiveness);
• Moral (honesty, kindness, cruelty, etc.).

Soviet psychologist B.M. Teplov classified character traits as follows:

• Traits forming the foundation of personality (honesty, courage, integrity, loyalty, reliability);
• Traits expressing self-attitude (pride, self-importance, vanity, arrogance);
• Traits reflecting attitude toward work (diligence, laziness, activity, responsibility, initiative);
• Traits showing attitude toward others (indifference, sociability, introversion, kindness).

German psychiatrist and psychologist Ernst Kretschmer also proposed a classification in his 1921 work “Physique and Character,” identifying three main body types: asthenic (“slender”), pyknic (“stocky”), and athletic (“muscular”). While his work is mostly related to psychiatry and mental disorders, Kretschmer claimed these features also apply to healthy individuals, though less pronounced. Many experts are skeptical of the scientific validity of this approach.

Types of Character

Attempts to study character types have led to the development of “characterology.” This field examines the connection between character types and appearance to predict behavior and reactions in different situations. Typology is based on the presence of typical traits common to certain groups. Thus, character types express the individuality of traits shared by a group.

Key ideas in typology:

• Formation occurs early (by age 6, the first signs appear) and remains relatively stable throughout life;
• The set of personality traits is not random.

Kretschmer’s work on the link between body type and character was mentioned above. In such cases, people with certain body types exhibit accentuated traits.

The concept of “accentuation” was first introduced by K. Leonhard. His theory is based on the presence of core and additional traits that form the backbone of a person’s psyche.

Leonhard’s types of accentuation in communication style include:

• Dysthymic (pessimistic mood, few words, seriousness, heightened sense of justice, individuality, slow thinking, passivity);
• Hyperthymic (high sociability, expressive gestures, talkativeness, energetic, optimistic, initiative, adventurous, tolerant of obligations, prefers solitude, often irritable, struggles with strict discipline);
• Cycloid (mood swings, frequent changes in communication style, alternating between hyperthymic and dysthymic states);
• Excitable (tediousness, rudeness, provoking conflicts, active role in disputes, mood swings affecting behavior);
• Stuck (initiator in conflicts, moralizing, striving for high achievement, ambition, jealousy, making excessive demands on others);
• Pedantic (communicative, avoids conflict, meticulous, reliable, but also tedious, grumbling, and formal);
• Anxious (insecure, very low sociability, self-critical, good performers, often become scapegoats due to shyness and vulnerability);
• Emotive (prefers close circles, doesn’t show hurt feelings, kind, dutiful, responsible);
• Demonstrative (craves power and leadership, intriguer, performer, attracts others, egotistical, hypocritical, boastful, lazy, simulates activity);
• Exalted (easily falls in love, takes different sides in conflicts, attached to loved ones, can be a “director” of panic, prone to mood swings);
• Extraverted (typical extrovert);
• Introverted (typical introvert).

Reading these types, you may find yourself fitting several descriptions. That’s why we talk about the core structure of personality in character typology. Other classifications include:

• Adolescent character accentuations by A.E. Lichko;
• Character typology by Erich Fromm;
• Typology based on John Holland’s theory, and others.

Non-scientific methods are also widespread, such as:

• Various types of horoscopes;
• Physiognomy (the study of the link between appearance and character);
• Palmistry (predicting by palm lines).

Character Development in Early School Age

Many psychologists who support idealism explain character formation by heredity, often confusing it with temperament. However, heredity is only one factor; character traits are shaped by social, not biological, laws.

People are not born cowards or heroes, liars or truth-seekers, slackers or workaholics—they become so. The main factor in character development during early school years is interaction with adults, imitation, and observing their actions.

The period from ages 2-3 to 9-10 is called the sensitive period for character formation. During this time, children are especially open to adult influence and trust, which helps reinforce behaviors. As one psychologist noted, as soon as a child realizes they’ve been deceived, they learn to deceive; when they feel kindness, they understand evil, and so on. That’s why, in childhood, we learned poems like Mayakovsky’s “What Is Good and What Is Bad.” Remember: to whom did the little son come with his question, and what conclusion did he reach?

School is a crucial stage. The first teacher is often called a second mother, and everyone remembers her name for life. This shows how impressionable first graders are. The character traits developed at home and reinforced at school tend to last a lifetime. If the process is reversed, it can lead to a breakdown in character, with internal and external conflicts. Such restructuring doesn’t always have positive results, so a compromise often forms between what is taught at home and what is required at school.

The Role of Conflict in Character Formation

The deepest and most lasting changes in character often occur after emotional experiences from childhood conflicts. A vivid example is a child transferring to a new school. Changing peer groups and finding a compromise between home (“you must”) and new school demands can both reveal and shape character.

Studies show that over 70% of people aged 25 to 60 noticed changes in their character during adolescence, with decisive actions in critical or conflict situations being the main factor.

The way a person resolves a conflict—whether they act in a way that alienates them from others or brings them closer—depends on their upbringing and development. However, even with excellent upbringing and a positive environment, the same person may make different choices. This means everyone shapes their own character through their actions. Therefore, character formation is impossible without self-development.

Tips for Improving Character

Primary character traits, especially practical ones, can be developed in children at certain ages if certain conditions are met:

• The child or adult (parent, caregiver, teacher) must have a strong desire to develop these qualities. Rushing or promising to “make a person out of a child” is a waste of time.
• There must be a consistent, persistent, and long-term effort to develop and reinforce the desired character traits.
• Guide the child in the right direction and, where necessary, suggest steps for self-development.
• Consistently highlight and reinforce positive progress toward the goal.
• Use consequences for displaying opposite traits, such as irresponsibility, laziness, or sloppiness.

Remember, developing one trait inevitably affects others, as they form a stable value system with age. Before correcting a specific trait, it’s important to identify its connections with others and address them as a whole.

Conclusion

Character is not inherited; it is formed throughout life under the influence of others, life experience, and upbringing. Formation begins in early childhood and is fundamental, as this is when the first building blocks of collectivism, courage, kindness, neatness, and sociability are laid. The key participants in this process are home, school, and the street, with the main environments being communication, competition, play, and self-education.