Inhumane Psychology: Human Experimentation in Psychological Research
Throughout the history of psychology, there have been numerous experiments that would be considered unthinkable by today’s ethical standards. From the abuse of orphans and women to cruel tests on animals, the “most humane science” has a dark side. Here are eight psychological studies that would be impossible to conduct today, each involving some form of violence or ethical violation. Some are textbook classics, while others taught us little, but all left a mark on the field.
1. John Watson / “Little Albert”
In the 1920s, John Watson, the founder of behaviorism, conducted a notorious experiment on a nine-month-old baby known as “Albert B.” Inspired by Pavlov’s work, Watson wanted to see if he could condition emotional responses in children. He first got Albert to like a white rat, then began scaring him by banging a metal plate every time Albert reached for the rat. Eventually, Albert developed a fear not just of the rat, but of anything white and fluffy, including rabbits, Santa Claus masks, and cotton.
What did we learn? Not much, except that classical conditioning works on humans as well as animals. Contrary to some reports, Albert was not an orphan, and Watson never reversed the fear. The child was taken away by his mother soon after the experiment and later died at age ten from hydrocephalus.
“When the rat was presented, the child began to cry. He quickly turned left, fell over, got on all fours, and crawled away so fast he was barely caught at the edge of the table.”
Why it’s impossible now: Modern ethics prohibit psychological and moral abuse of infants and require representative samples for reliable conclusions.
How it’s done today: Modern behavioral therapies, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, are based on conditioning principles but are applied ethically and with consent.
2. Carney Landis / Decapitation and Jazz
In 1924, Carney Landis, a University of Minnesota student, conducted experiments to find common facial expressions for emotions. He drew lines on participants’ faces and exposed them to various stimuli: pornographic photos, ammonia, jars of frogs, and jazz music. The final test involved asking participants to decapitate a live rat. Most reluctantly agreed, though few could do it cleanly.
What did we learn? Landis found no universal facial expressions, but did prove that most students are not skilled at decapitating rats.
“They tried to do it as quickly as possible, but the decapitation turned into a difficult and lengthy process.”
Why it’s impossible now: Animal cruelty is strictly prohibited.
How it’s done today: With consent, participants can be exposed to various stimuli, but without any violence or harm.
3. Wendell Johnson and Mary Tudor / “The Monster Study”
In 1939, Wendell Johnson and his graduate student Mary Tudor at the University of Iowa tried to induce stuttering in 22 orphaned children. One group was praised and encouraged, while the other was criticized and humiliated. Many children in the second group developed lifelong speech problems.
“Do whatever you can not to stutter. Don’t even try to speak until you can do it right. You saw how [name] started stuttering, right? He started just like you.”
The results were kept secret for decades, only coming to light in the early 2000s. The university later apologized and settled lawsuits with the victims.
What did we learn? If you yell at a child, you can cause a stutter; if you praise them, you can help overcome speech defects. Childhood trauma can also lead to lawsuits worth nearly a million dollars.
Why it’s impossible now: Psychological abuse of children, especially orphans, is illegal and punishable by law.
How it’s done today: Researchers now study positive reinforcement in child development, without negative or abusive methods.
4. The Reimer Twins / “A Life Cut Short”
In 1966, eight-month-old Bruce Reimer suffered a botched circumcision that destroyed his penis. Instead of suing, his parents sought help from Dr. John Money, a gender theorist who believed environment determined gender identity. Money advised them to raise Bruce as a girl, Brenda, after removing his testicles and starting hormone therapy. For years, the case was hailed as a success, but in reality, Brenda was miserable, rejected female roles, and eventually transitioned back to male as David. He later died by suicide.
“Although the girl dominated her twin brother at an early age, by age four it was clear who was the girl and who was the boy. By five, she preferred dresses, bows, and being daddy’s little sweetheart.” (from Dr. Money’s report)
What did we learn? This case is often cited as proof that gender identity cannot be forcibly changed, though it also highlights the dangers of non-consensual surgery on children.
Why it’s impossible now: Medical guidelines prohibit gender reassignment surgery on children under 18, except in cases of intersex conditions.
How it’s done today: Gender-neutral upbringing is sometimes attempted, but forced gender reassignment is not permitted.
5. Ron Jones / “The Historian as a New Führer”
In 1967, history teacher Ron Jones wanted to demonstrate how easily a totalitarian regime could take hold. He introduced strict discipline, a group identity called “The Third Wave,” and a special salute. Within a week, his students had formed a mini-fascist group, enthusiastically recruiting others and ostracizing dissenters. The experiment ended with Jones revealing the truth, leaving many students in tears.
“On Tuesday… I entered the classroom and found the children sitting in the agreed positions. Some smiled, but most looked straight ahead, serious and focused.”
What did we learn? Adolescents are highly susceptible to group influence and authority, especially when it feels like a game.
Why it’s impossible now: You can’t legally form a totalitarian sect in a classroom, though similar organizations exist under neutral ideologies.
How it’s done today: Youth organizations with strict discipline are allowed, as long as they avoid extremist ideologies.
6. Stanley Milgram / “Shocking Obedience”
Stanley Milgram, deeply affected by the Holocaust, spent the 1960s studying obedience to authority. In his classic experiment, participants were instructed to administer electric shocks to a “learner” (an actor) for incorrect answers, increasing the voltage with each mistake. Despite visible distress, most participants continued when urged by the experimenter, even to dangerous levels.
“240 volts. No, that’s enough. What? I have to continue? No, I’m not going to kill him. There’s 450 volts here—that’s too much. I know I’m supposed to continue, but he’s screaming in there.”
What did we learn? People find it extremely difficult to defy authority, even when it means harming others. However, obedience drops when authority figures disagree or are seen as equals.
Why it’s impossible now: The experiment caused significant stress and deception, which is now considered unethical.
How it’s done today: Obedience can still be studied, but without real or perceived harm to participants.
7. The Stanford Prison Experiment
In 1971, psychologist Philip Zimbardo simulated a prison environment with college students randomly assigned as guards or prisoners. The guards quickly became abusive, and the experiment spiraled out of control, ending after just six days. Zimbardo himself became caught up in the role of prison superintendent, only stopping after his fiancée intervened.
“Create in the prisoners a sense of boredom, fear, arbitrariness, and total control by the system, with no personal space… We’ll strip them of individuality in various ways. All this will create a sense of powerlessness. In this situation, we have all the power, and they have none.”
What did we learn? Power can quickly corrupt, and closed institutions are breeding grounds for abuse.
Why it’s impossible now: Any sign of abuse or humiliation would immediately halt such an experiment today.
How it’s done today: Only field studies in real institutions are possible; simulated environments with such risks are not allowed.
8. David Stewart / “The Strip Search Prank Calls”
From 1995 to 2004, a man impersonating a police officer called fast food restaurants, convincing managers to strip search female employees and even commit sexual acts, all in the name of law enforcement. Over 70 incidents occurred, mostly in small towns. The most infamous case in Kentucky was caught on camera, leading to Stewart’s arrest and national attention.
“- Why did you comply with the caller’s demands?
– I was afraid for my life.”
What did we learn? People are shockingly willing to obey authority, even over the phone, and victims often fail to question orders from someone claiming to be in charge.
Why it’s impossible now: Such acts are criminal, not experimental.
How it’s done today: You simply aren’t allowed to do this.